Vaishnavism | Wikipedia audio article
Vaishnavism (Vaishnava dharma) is one of the
major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smarthism. It is also called Vishnuism (paternal), its
followers are called Vaishnavas (maternal), and it considers Krishna as the Supreme Lord. The
tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Krishna is revered in one of many
distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most
studied. Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Kalki, Hari, Vithoba,
Kesava, Madhava, Govinda, Sri Nathji, and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same
supreme being.
The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st
millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, also called Krishnaism. Later developments led by Ramananda created
a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas
(denominations, sub-schools) ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya
to the Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja. The tradition is known for the loving devotion
to an avatar of Vishnu (often Krishna), and it has been key to the spread of the Bhakti
movement in South Asia in the 2nd millennium CE. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas,
the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra (Agama) texts, and the Bhagavata Purana. == History == Vaishnavism originates in the latest centuries
BCE and the early centuries CE, as an amalgam of the heroic Krishna Vasudeva, the “divine
child” Bala Krishna of the Gopala traditions, and syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions
with the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism to become acceptable
to the orthodox establishment.
Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti
yoga in the medieval period. === Origins === ====
Northern India ==== Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he
is mentioned more often compared to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting
that he had a major position in the Vedic religion. Other scholars state that there are other
Vedic deities, such as the water deity Nara (also mentioned as Narayana-Purusha in the Brahmanas
layer of the Vedas), together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE),
the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition
considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva
and Devi to be Brahman respectively. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, and the evidence
inconsistent and scanty. According to Dalal, the origins may be in
the Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatam. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities
Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism. According to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have
emerged from the merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were
integrated as different avatars of the same god.
In Dandekar’s theory, Vaishnavism emerged at
the end of the Vedic period, closely before the second urbanization of northern India,
in the 7th to 4th century BCE. Vasudeva and Krishna, “the deified tribal
hero and religious leader of the Yadavas,” gained prominence, and merged into Bhagavan Vasudeva-Krishna,
due to the close relationship between the Vrsnis and the Yadavas. This was followed by a merger
with the cult of Gopala-Krishna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras in the 4th century
CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered
to be non-Vedic. According to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated
the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The “Greater Krsnaism”, states Dandekar, then
merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu. Syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted
in Vaishnavism.
At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda
was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God. The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars
of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the
Mahabharata is a key text for Krishnaism. Finally, the Narayana cult was also included, which
further Brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated
in Badari, a northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa
Narayana. Purusa Narayana may have later been turned
into Arjuna and Krsna. This complex history is reflected in the two main historical denominations
of Vishnavism. The Bhagavad, worship Vasudeva-Krsna, and
are followers of Brahmanic Vaishnavism, while the Pacaratrins regard Narayana as their founder,
and are followers of Tantric Vaishnavism. ==== Southern India ====
According to Hardy, there is evidence of early “southern Krishnaism,” despite the tendency
to allocate the Krishna traditions to the Northern traditions. South Indian texts show a close parallel with
the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North
Indian text and imagery. Early writings in Dravidian culture such as
Manimekalai and the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother, and his favorite female
companions in similar terms.
Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana
is essentially a Sanskrit “translation” of the bhakti of the Tamil altars. Devotion to
southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a
divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu. The Alvars, whose name can be translated as “sages”
or “saints”, were devotees of Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation
to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between
Krishna and Vishnu are based on the concept of Avatars. Yet, according to Hardy the term “Mayonism”
should be used instead of “Krishnaism” when referring to Mal or Mayon.
=== Gupta era ===
Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were known
as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. === Early medieval period === After the Gupta age, Krishnaism rose to a
major current of Vaishnavism, and Vaishnavism developed into various sects and subsects,
most of them emphasizing bhakti, which was strongly influenced by south Indian religiosity.Vaishnavism
in the 8th century came into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi Shankara. Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such
as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya, and Ramanuja, contested the Advaita Vedanta doctrines and proposed
Vishnu bhakti ideas instead. Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite
South India during the seventh to tenth centuries CE with the twelve Alvars, saints who spread
the sect to the common people with their devotional hymns. The temples that the Alvars visited or founded
are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna
in the Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira Divya Prabandha(4000 divine verses). === Later medieval period === The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism
started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century.
It was supported by the Puranic literature
such as the Bhagavata Purana, poetic works, as well as many scholarly basis and Samhitas.This
the period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence
of scholars such as Ramanujacharya, Vedantha Desikacharya, Madhvacharya, Nimbarkacharya
and Vallabhacharya. Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala
Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and
many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. Even Meera bai(princess of Mehwar and Rajasthan)took
part in this specific movement. These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged
the then dominant Shankara’s doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly Ramanuja in
the 12th century, Vedantha Desikacharya and Madhva in the 13th building their theology
on the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Shri Vaishnavas).In North and Eastern India,
Krishnaism gave rise to various late Medieval movements: Nimbarka and Ramananda in the 14th
century, Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century.
Historically, it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
who founded congregational chanting of the holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century
after becoming a sannyasi. === Modern times ===
During the 20th century, Vaishnavism spread from India and is now practiced in many places
around the globe, including North America, Europe, Africa, Russia, and South America. This is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON
movement, founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966. == Beliefs == ===
Theism with many varieties === Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of
Vishnu and his avatars.
According to Schweig, it is a “polymorphic
monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognizes many forms (Ananta rupa) of the one, single
unitary divinity,” since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking
many forms. Okita, in contrast, states that the different
denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as theism, pantheism, and panentheism. The
Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya is a monotheistic tradition wherein Vishnu
(Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. In contrast, Sri Vaishnavism sampradaya associated
with Ramanuja has monotheistic elements, but differs in several ways, such as goddess Lakshmi
and god Vishnu are considered as inseparable equal divinities. According to some scholars, Sri Vaishnavism
emphasizes panentheism, and not monotheism, with its theology of “transcendence and immanence”,
where God interpenetrates everything in the universe, and all of empirical reality is
God’s body.
The Vaishnava sampradaya associated with Vallabhacharya
is a form of pantheism, in contrast to the other Vaishnavism traditions. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Chaitanya,
states Schweig, is closer to a polymorphic bi-monotheism because both goddess Radha and
god Krishna are simultaneously supreme. Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar (incarnation)
doctrine, wherein Vishnu incarnates numerous times, in different forms, to set things right
and bring back the balance in the universe. These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva,
Rama and Krishna; each the name of a divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each
associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes to be distinct. ==== Vishnuism and Krishnaism ====
The term “Krishnaism” has been used to describe the sects focused on Krishna, while “Vishnuism”
may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an Avatar, rather than a
transcended Supreme Being. Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme
being,(Krishnaism contradicts this, and claims that Krishna is the source of the Tridev and
also an immediate expansion of Himself as Mahavishnu) manifested himself as Krishna,
while Krishnaism accepts Krishna to be Svayam Bhagavan or “authentic”, that manifested himself
as Vishnu. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of
the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses.
In common language the term Krishnaism is
not often used, as many prefer a wider term “Vaishnavism”, which appeared to relate to
Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism. ==== Vishnu ====
In Vishnu-centered sects, Vishnu or Narayana is the one supreme God. The belief in the supremacy of Vishnu is based
upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in the Puranic texts, which differs
from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya, or Durga.To the devotees of the Sri
Sampradaya “Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the foundation of all existence.” ====
Krishna ==== In the Krishnaism branch of Vaishnavism, such
as the Gaudiya Vaishnava, Nimbarka, and Vallabhacharya traditions, devotees worship Krishna as the
One Supreme form of God, and source of all avatars, Svayam Bhagavan. Krishnaism is often
also called Bhagavatism, after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is “Bhagavan
Himself,” and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara,
Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana, etc.Krishna is often described as having the appearance of
a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing the flute or as a
youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.Krishna
is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism, and Krishna and the stories associated
with him appearing across a broad spectrum of different Hindu philosophical and theological
traditions, where it is believed that God appears to his devoted worshippers in many
different forms, depending on their particular desires.
These forms include the different avatars
of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions
of the Svayam Bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite
scriptures of any one religious community. Many of the Hindu scriptures sometimes differ
in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the
view on Krishna are shared by all. ==== Radha Krishna ==== Radha Krishna is the combination of both the
feminine as well as masculine aspects of God. Krishna is often referred to as swami Bhagavan
in Gaudiya Vaishnavism theology and Radha is Krishna’s supreme beloved. With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the
Supreme Goddess, for it is said that she controls Krishna with Her love.
It is believed that Krishna enchants the world,
but Radha “enchants even Him. Therefore She is the supreme goddess of all. Radha Krishna”.While there are much earlier
references to the worship of this form of God, it is since Jayadeva Goswami wrote a
famous poem Gita Govinda in the twelfth century CE, that the topic of the spiritual love affair
between the divine Krishna and his devotee Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout
India. It is believed that Krishna has left the “circle”
of the rasa dance to search for Radha.
The Chaitanya school believes that the name
and identity of Radha are both revealed and concealed in the verse describing this incident
in Bhagavata Purana. It is also believed that Radha is not just
one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the gopi’s, or divine personalities that participate
in the rasa dance. ==== Dashavatara ==== According to the Bhagavatas, there are ten
avatars of Vishnu, including Rama and Krishna. In contrast, the Pancaratrins follow the yuan
doctrine, which says that God has four manifestations (yeah), namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna,
and Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent “the Highest
Self, the individual self, mind, and egoism.” ===
Restoration of dharma === Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept
of avatar (incarnation) around Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer.
His avatars assert Vaishnavism, descend
to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring Dharma. This is reflected in the passages of the ancient
Bhagavad Gita: In Vaishnava mythology, such as is presented
in the Bhagavata Purana and the Pancaratra, whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically
because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar
of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic
balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil. The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu,
within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are Krishna, Rama, Narayana, and Vasudeva. These names have extensive literature associated
with them, each has its characteristics, legends, and associated arts. The Mahabharata, for example, includes Krishna,
while the Ramayana includes Rama.
== Texts ==
The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas are the scriptural sources
of Vaishnavism, while the Bhagavata Purana is a revered and celebrated popular text,
parts of which a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall include as a scripture. Other important texts in the tradition include
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by various sampradayas (denominations
within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava traditions, Krishna is accepted
as a teacher, whose teachings are in the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana. === Scriptures === ==== Vedas and Upanishads ====
Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the Vedas as the scriptural authority. All traditions within Vaishnavism consider
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads embedded within the four Vedas as Sruti, while
Smritis, which includes all the epics, the Puranas, and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai
Dhavamony is considered the “exegetical or expository literature” of the Vedic texts. The
Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, that interpreted the Upanishads and the Brahma
Sutra provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism.
Given the ancient archaic language of the
Vedic texts, each school’s interpretation varied, and this has been the source of differences
between the sampradayas (denominations) of Vaishnavism. These interpretations have created different
traditions within Vaishnavism, from dualistic (Dvaita) Vedanta of Madhvacharya to nondualistic
(Advaita) Vedanta of Madhusudana Sarasvati. ===== Vaishnava Upanishads =====
Along with the reverence and exegetical analysis of the ancient Principal Upanishads, Vaishnava-inspired
scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focussed Upanishads that are called the Vaishnava Upanishads.
These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads
in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature. The earliest among these were likely composed
in the 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones were in the late medieval era. All of the Vaishnava
Upanishads either directly reference and quote from the ancient Principal Upanishads or incorporate
some ideas found in them; most cited texts include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya
Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad and
others.
In some cases, they cite fragments from the
Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Rigveda and the Yajurveda. The Vaishnava Upanishads
present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic themes to a synthesis of Vaishnava
ideas with Advaitic, Yoga, Shaiva, and Shakti themes. ==== Bhagavad Gita ====
The Bhagavad Gita is a central text in Vaishnavism, especially in the context of Krishna. The Bhagavad Gita is an important scripture
not only within Vaishnavism but also in other traditions of Hinduism. It is one of three important texts of the
Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, and has been central to all Vaishnavism sampradayas. The
Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna and presents Bhakti, Jnana and
Karma yoga is an alternate way to spiritual liberation, with the choice left to the individual. The text discusses dharma, and its pursuit
as duty without craving for fruits of one’s actions, as a form of the spiritual path to liberation. The text, states Clooney and Stewart, succinctly
summarizes the foundations of Vaishnava theology that the entire universe exists within Vishnu,
and all aspects of life and living are not only a divine order but divinity itself.
Bhakti, in Bhagavad Gita, is an act of sharing,
and a deeply personal awareness of spirituality within and without. The Bhagavad Gita is a
summary of the classical Upanishads and Vedic philosophy and is closely associated with the
Bhagavata and related traditions of Vaishnavism. The text has been commented upon and integrated
into diverse Vaishnava denominations, such as by the medieval era Madhvacharya’s Dvaita
Vedanta school and Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita Vedanta school, as well as 20th-century Vaishnava
movements such as the Hare Krishna movement by Swami Prabhupada. ==== Vaishnava Agamas ====
The Pancaratra Samhitas (literally, five nights) is a genre of texts where Vishnu is presented
as Narayana and Vasudeva, and this genre of Vaishnava texts is also known as the Vaishnava
Agamas. Its doctrines are found embedded in the stories
within the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata. Narayana is presented as the ultimate unchanging
truth and reality (Brahman), who pervades the entirety of the universe and is asserted
to be the preceptor of all religions. The Pancaratra texts present the Vyuhas theory of avatars
to explain how absolute reality (Brahman) manifests into the material form of ever-changing
reality (Vishnu avatar).
Vasudeva stated in the Pancaratra texts, goes
through a series of emanations, where new avatars of him appear. This theory of avatar formation syncretically
integrates the theories of the evolution of matter and life developed by the Samkhya school of
Hindu philosophy. These texts also present cosmology, methods
of worship, tantra, Yoga, and principles behind the design and building of Vaishnava temples
(Mandira nirvana). These texts have guided religiosity and temple
ceremonies in many Vaishnava communities, particularly in South India.The Pancaratra
Samhitas are tantric in emphasis and at the foundation of tantric Vaishnava traditions
such as the Sri Vaishnava tradition. They complement and compete with the Vedic
Vaishnava traditions such as the Bhagavata tradition, which emphasize the more ancient
Vedic texts, ritual grammar, and procedures. While the practices vary, the philosophy of
Pancaratra is primarily derived from the Upanishads, its ideas synthesize Vedic concepts and incorporate
Vedic teachings. The three most studied texts of this genre of Vaishnava religious texts
are Paushkara Samhita, Sattvata Samhita, and Jakakhya Samhita. The other important Pancaratra texts include
the Lakshmi Tantra and Ahirbudhnya Samhita. Scholars place the start of this genre of
texts to about the 7th or 8th century CE, and later.
=== Other texts === ====
Mahabharata and Ramayana ==== The two Indian epics, the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana present Vaishnava philosophy and culture embedded in legends and dialogues. The epics are considered the fifth Veda, in
Hindu culture. The Ramayana describes the story of Rama,
an avatar of Vishnu, and is taken as a history of the ‘ideal king’, based on the principles
of dharma, morality, and ethics. Rama’s wife Sita, his brother Lakshman, with
his devotee and follower Hanuman all, play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as
examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behavior.
Ravana, the evil king, and villain of the epic,
is presented as an epitome of dharma, playing the opposite role of how not to behave. The
Mahabharata is centered around Krishna and presents him as the avatar of the transcendental supreme
being. The epic details the story of a war between
good and evil, each side represented by two families of cousins with wealth and power,
one depicted as driven by virtues and values while the other by vice and deception, with Krishna
playing a pivotal role in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is
the Bhagavad Gita. ==== Puranas ==== The Puranas are an important source of entertaining
narratives and folk mythology states Mahony, that are embedded with “philosophical, theological
and mystical modes of experience and expression” as well as reflective “moral and soteriological
instructions”.More broadly, the Puranic literature is encyclopedic, and it includes diverse topics
such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages,
and demigods, folk tales, travel guides and pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy,
grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.
The Puranas were a living genre of texts because
they were routinely revised, their content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas,
and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and
likely the work of many authors over the centuries. Of the 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas), many have
titles based on one of the avatars of Vishnu. However, quite many of these are,
in large part, Shiva-related Puranas, likely because these texts were revised over their
history. Some were revised into Vaishnava treatises,
such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, which originated as a Puranic text dedicated to
the Surya (Sun god). Textual cross-referencing evidence suggests
that in or after the 15th/16th century CE, it went through a series of major revisions,
and almost all extant manuscripts of Brahma Vaivarta Purana are now Vaishnava (Krishna)
bhakti oriented. Of the extant manuscripts, the main Vaishnava
Puranas are Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu Purana, and Varaha Purana.
The Brahmanda Purana is notable for the Adhyatma-Ramayana,
a Rama-focussed embedded text in it, which philosophically attempts to synthesize Bhakti
in god Rama with Shaktism and Advaita Vedanta. While an avatar of Vishnu is the main focus
of the Puranas of Vaishnavism, these texts also include chapters that revere Shiva, Shakti
(goddess power), Brahma, and a pantheon of Hindu deities. The philosophy and teachings
of the Vaishnava Puranas are bhakti-oriented (often Krishna, but Rama features in some),
but they show an absence of a “narrow, sectarian spirit”. To its bhakti ideas, these texts show a synthesis
of Samkhya, Yoga, and Advaita Vedanta ideas. In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya and
Nimbarka sampradaya, Krishna is believed to be a transcendent, Supreme Being and source
of all avatars in the Bhagavata Purana. The text describes modes of loving devotion
to Krishna, wherein his devotees constantly think about him and feel grief and longing when
Krishna is called away on a heroic mission. ==== Sectarian texts ====
In the Varkari movement, the following scriptures are considered sacred in addition to the general
body of the common writing: Dyaneshawri
Tukaram-Gatha Sopandevi
Namdev-Gatha Eknathi-BhagwatThe Chaitanya movement has
the following texts. Sad Sandarbhas
Brahma Samhita ===
Attitude toward scriptures === Chaitanya Vaishnava traditions refer to the
writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradaya as authoritative interpretations
of scripture.
While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism
encourage interpretation of scriptures philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally,
Chaitanya Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (muka vṛitti) as primary and indirect
meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād spades as to shruti – “The instructions of
the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations.” ==
Practices == === Bhakti ===
The Bhakti movement originated among Vaishnavas of South India during the 7th century CE,
spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra towards the end
of the 13th century, and gained wide acceptance by the fifteenth century throughout India
during an era of political uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts.The Alvars, which literally
means “those immersed in God”, were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as
they traveled from one place to another. They established temple sites such as Srirangam,
and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Divya Prabhandham,
developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana’s references to the South
Indian Alvar saints, along with their emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give
it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the
the possibility that the bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.Vaishnava
bhakti practices involve loving devotion to a Vishnu avatar (often Krishna), an emotional
connection, a longing, and a continuous feeling of presence.
All aspects of life and living are not only
a divine order but divinity itself in Vaishnava bhakti. Community practices such as singing songs
together (kirtan or bhajan), and praising or ecstatically celebrating the presence of god together,
usually inside temples, but sometimes in open public are part of varying Vaishnava practices. These help Vaishnavas socialize and form a
community identity. === Tilaka === Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilaka
made up of Chandana, either as a daily ritual or on special occasions. The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have
their distinctive style of tilaka, which depicts the Siddhanta of their particular
lineage. The general tilaka pattern is of a parabolic
shape resembling the letter U or two or more connected vertical lines on and another optional
line on the nose resembling the letter Y, which usually represents the foot of Vishnu
and the center vertical line symbolizing his manhood. Alternate interpretations suggest that the
symbol is a representation of male and female parts in the union. === Initiation === In tantric traditions of Vaishnavism, during
the initiation (Diksha) given by a guru under whom they are trained to understand Vaishnava
practices, the initiates accept Vishnu as supreme.
At the time of initiation, the disciple is
traditionally given a specific mantra, which the disciple will repeat, either out loud
or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known
as Japa. In the Gaudiya Vaishnava group, one who performs
an act of worship with the name of Vishnu or Krishna can be considered a Vaishnava by
practice, “Who chants the holy name of Krishna just once may be considered a Vaishnava.” === Pilgrimage sites ===
Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavas include Guruvayur Temple, Srirangam, Vrindavan,
Mathura, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Pandharpur (Vitthal), Puri (Jaggannath), Nira Narsingpur (Narasimha),
Mayapur, Nathdwara, Dwarka Udipi(Karnataka)and Muktinath (NEPAL). === Holy places === Vrindavana is considered to be a holy place
by several traditions of Krishnaism. It is a center of Krishna worship and the
area includes places like Govardhana and Gokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial.
Many millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna
visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in several festivals that
relate to the scenes from Krishna’s life on Earth. On the other hand, Goloka is considered
the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam Bhagavan according to some Vaishnava schools, including
Gaudiya Vaishnavism and the Swaminarayan Sampraday. The scriptural basis for this is taken in
Brahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana. == Traditions == === Four sampradayas and other sects ===
The Vaishnavism traditions may be grouped within four sampradayas, each exemplified
by a specific Vedic personality. They have been associated with a specific
founder, providing the following scheme: Brahma Sampradaya (Madhvacharya), Sri Sampradaya
(Ramanuja), Rudra Sampradaya (Vishnuswami, Vallabhacharya), Kumaras sampradaya (Nimbarka).
These four sampradayas emerged in the early centuries
of the 2nd millennium CE, by the 14th century, influencing and sanctioning the Bhakti movement. The
philosophical systems of Vaishnava sampradayas range from theistic Dvaita of Madhvacharya,
to qualified monistic Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja, to pure nondualistic Shuddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya. They all revere an avatar of Vishnu but have
varying theories on the relationship between the soul (jiva) and Brahman, on the nature
of changing and unchanging reality, methods of worship, as well as on spiritual liberation
for the householder stage of life versus the sannyasa (renunciation) stage.Beyond the four major
sampradayas, the situation is more complicated, with the Vaikhanasas being much older than
those four sampradayas, and several additional traditions and sects which originated later,
or aligned themselves with one of those four sampradayas. Krishna sampradayas continued to be founded
late into late medieval and during the Mughal Empire era, such as the Radhavallabha, Haridasi,
Gaudiya and others.
=== Early traditions === ==== Bhagavats ====
The Bhagavad were the early worshippers of Krishna, the followers of Bhagavat, the Lord,
in the person of Krishna, Vasudeva, Vishnu, or Bhagavan. The term Bhagavata may have denoted a general
religious tradition or attitude of theistic worship which prevailed until the 11th century,
and not a specific sect, and is best known as a designation for Vishnu devotees. The earliest scriptural evidence of Vaishnava
Bhagavad is an inscription from 115 BCE, in which Heliodoros, ambassador of the Greco-Bactrian
king Amtalikita, says that he is a Bhagavata of
Vasudeva. It was supported by the Guptas, suggesting
a widespread appeal, in contrast to specific sects. ==== Pancaratra ==== The Pāñcarātra is the tradition of Narayana worship. The term pāñcarātra means “five nights,”
from pañca, “five,” and rātra, “nights,” and may be derived from the “five-night sacrifice”
as described in the Satapatha Brahmana, which narrates how Purusa-Narayana intends to become
the highest being by performing a sacrifice that lasts five nights. The Narayaniya section
of the Mahabharata describes the ideas of the Pāñcarātras.
Characteristic is the description of the manifestation
of the Absolute through a series of manifestations, from the yuan manifestations of Vasudeva
and pure creation, through the tattvas of mixed creation into impure or material creation. The
Pāñcarātra Samhitas developed from the 7th or 8th century onward and belong to
Agamic or Tantras, setting them at odds with Vedic orthodoxy. Vishnu worshipers in south India still follow
the system of Pancharatra worship as described in these texts. Although the Pāñcarātra
originated in north India, it had a strong influence on south India, where it is closely
related to the Sri Vaishnava tradition. According to Welbon, “Pāñcarātra cosmological
and ritual theory and practice combine with the unique vernacular devotional poetry of
the Alvars, and Ramanuja, the founder of the Sri Vaishnava tradition, propagated Pāñcarātra
ideas.” Ramananda was also influenced by Pāñcarātra
ideas through the influence of Sri Vaishnavism, whereby Pāñcarātra re-entered north India. ===== Vaikhanasas ===== The Vaikhanasas are associated with the Pāñcarātra,
but regard themselves as a Vedic orthodox sect. Modern Vaikhanasas reject elements of the
Pāñcarātra and Sri Vaishnava traditions, but the historical relationship with the orthodox
Vaikhanasa in south India is unclear.
The Vaikhanasas may have resisted the incorporation
of the devoted elements of the Alvar tradition, while the Pāñcarātras were open to this
incorporation. Vaikhanasas have their foundational text, the Vaikhanasasmarta Sutra, which describes
a mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship. The Vaikhanasas became chief priests in a
lot of south Indian temples, where they remain influential. === Medieval traditions === ====
Smartism ==== The Smarta tradition developed during the
(early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism
emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.
According to Flood, Smartism developed and
expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. By the time of Adi Shankara, it had developed
the Pancayatanapuja, the worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal, namely
Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya, and Devi (Shakti), “as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional
practices.”Traditionally, Sri Adi Shankaracharya (8th century) is regarded as the greatest
teacher and reformer of the Smarta.
According to Hiltebeitel, Adi Shankara Acharya
established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived
smarta tradition. ==== Alvars ==== The Alvars, “those immersed in god,” were
twelve Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused bhakti (devotion) to the Hindu god
Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and service. The Alvars appeared between the 5th century
to the 10th century CE, though the Vaishnava tradition regards the Alvars to have lived
between 4200 BCE – 2700 BCE. The devotional writings of Alvars, composed
during the early medieval period of Tamil history, are key texts in the bhakti movement. They praised the Divya Desams, 108 “abodes”
(temples) of the Vaishnava deities. The collection of their hymns is known as
Divya Prabandha. Their Bhakti poems have contributed to the
establishment and sustenance of a culture that opposed the ritual-oriented Vedic religion
and rooted itself in devotion as the only path to salvation. === Contemporary traditions ===
Gavin Flood mentions the five most important contemporary Vaisnava orders.
==== Sri Vaishnava ==== The Sri Vaishnava community consists of both
Smarta Brahmans and non-Brahmans. It existed along with a larger Purana-based
Brahamanic worshippers of Vishnu, and non-Brahmanic groups who worshipped and felt possessed by
non-Vishnu village deities. The Sri Vaishnavism movement grew with its
social inclusiveness, where emotional devotionals to personal god (Vishnu) have been open without
limitation to gender or caste. The most striking difference between Srivaishnavas and other
Vaishnava groups lie in their interpretation of Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic
deities like Indra, Savitar, Bhaga, Rudra, etc. to be the same as their Puranic counterparts,
Srivaishnavas consider these to be different names/roles/forms of Lord Narayan citing solid
reasons thus claiming that the entire Veda is dedicated to Vishnu worship alone. Srivaishnavas have remodeled Pancharatra
homes like Sudarshana homes, etc. to include Vedic Suktas like Rudram in them, thus giving
them a Vedic outlook. Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in
the 10th century. It incorporated two different traditions,
namely the tantric Pancaratra tradition and the puranic Vishnu worship of northern India
with their abstract Vedantic theology, and the southern bhakti tradition of the Alvars
of Tamil Nadu with their devotion.
The tradition was founded by Nathamuni (10th
century), who along with Yamunacharya, combined the two traditions and gave the tradition
legitimacy by drawing on the Alvars. Its most influential leader was Ramanuja (1017-1137),
who developed the Visistadvaita (“qualified non-dualism”) philosophy. Ramanuja challenged the then-dominant Advaita
Vedanta interpretation of the Upanishads and Vedas, by formulating the Vishishtadvaita
philosophy foundations for Sri Vaishnavism from Vedanta. Sri Vaishnava includes the ritual
and temple life in the tantra traditions of Pancaratra, emotional devotionals to Vishnu,
and a contemplative form of bhakti, in the context of householder social and religious duties.
The tantric rituals refer to techniques
and texts recited during worship, and these include Sanskrit and Tamil texts in South
Indian Sri Vaishnava tradition. According to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha
can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world. When moksha is reached, the cycle of reincarnation
is broken and the soul is united with Vishnu after death, though maintaining their distinctions,
in Vaikuntha, Vishnu’s heaven. Moksha can also be reached by total surrender
and sarangi, an act of grace by the Lord. Ramanuja’s Sri Vaishnavism subscribes to Vidahaman
(liberation in the afterlife), in contrast to jivanmukti (liberation in this life) found
in other traditions within Hinduism, such as the Smarta and Shaiva traditions. Two hundred
years after Ramanuja, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the Vadakalai (“northern culture”)
and Tenkalai (“southern culture”). The Vatakalai relied stronger on the Sanskrit
scriptures, and emphasized bhakti by devotion to temple icons, while the Tenkalai relied
more on the Tamil heritage and total surrender.
==== Gaudiya Vaishnavism ==== Gaudiya Vaishnavism, also known as Chaitanya
Vaishnavism and Hare Krishna were founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) in India. “Gaudiya” refers to the Gauḍa region (present-day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning “the worship of Vishnu or Krishna”. Its philosophical basis is primarily that
of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana. The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional
worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme
forms of God, Svayam Bhagavan.
Most popularly, this worship takes the form
of singing Radha and Krishna’s holy names, such as “Hare”, “Krishna” and “Rama”, most
commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna (mantra), also known as Kirtan. It sees the many forms of Vishnu or Krishna
as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God, Adi Purusha. After its decline in the 18-19th century,
it was revived at the beginning of the 20th century due to the efforts of Bhaktivinoda
Thakur. His son Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura
founded sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma, and Europe.
Thakura’s disciple Srila Prabhupada went to
the west and spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism through the International Society for Krishna Consciousness
(ISKCON). ==== Varkari-tradition and Vithoba-worship
==== The Varkari-tradition is a non-Brahamanical
a tradition that worships Vithoba, also known as Vitthal, which is regarded as a form of Vishnu
or Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young
boy, standing with arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai. The Varkari-tradition is geographically associated
with the Indian states of Maharashtra and northern Karnataka. The Varkari movement includes a duty-based
approach towards life, emphasizing moral behavior and strict avoidance of alcohol and tobacco,
adoption of a strict Lacto-vegetarian diet and fasting on Ekadashi day (twice a
month), self-restraint (brahmacharya) during student life, equality and humanity for all
rejecting discrimination based on the caste system or wealth, the reading of Hindu texts,
the recitation of the Haripath every day and the regular practice of bhajan and kirtan. The most important festivals of Vithoba are
held on the eleventh (Ekadashi) day of the lunar months” Shayani Ekadashi in the month
of Ashadha, and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The Varkari poet-saints are known for their
devotional lyrics, the ab-hang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature includes the Kannada
hymns of the Haridasa and Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs associated with
rituals of offering light to the deity. Notable saints and gurus of the Varkaris include
Jñāneśvar, Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath, and Tukaram, all of whom are accorded the
title of Sant. Though the origins of both his cult and his
main temple are debated, there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century. Various Indologists have proposed a prehistory
for Vithoba worship where he was previously a hero stone, a pastoral deity, a manifestation
of Shiva, a Jain saint, or even all of these at various times for various devotees.
==== Ramanandi tradition ==== The Ramanandi Sampradaya, also known as the
Ramayats or the Ramavats are one of the largest and most egalitarian Hindu sects in India, around
the Ganges Plain, and Nepal today. It mainly emphasizes the worship of Rama,
as well as Vishnu directly and other incarnations. Most Ramanandis consider themselves to be
the followers of Ramananda, a Vaishnava saint in medieval India. Philosophically, they are in the Vishishtadvaita
(IAST Viśiṣṭādvaita) tradition. Its ascetic wing constitutes the largest Vaishnava monastic
order and maybe the largest monastic order in all of India.
Rāmānandī ascetics rely upon meditation
and strict ascetic practices, but also believe that the grace of god is required for them
to achieve liberation. ==== Northern Sant tradition ==== Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet
and saint, whose writings influenced the Bhakti movement, but whose verses are also found
in Sikhism’s scripture Adi Granth. His early life was in a Muslim family, but
he was strongly influenced by his teacher, the Hindu bhakti leader Ramananda. Some scholars
state Kabir’s ideas were one of the many influences on Guru Nanak, who went on to found Sikhism
in the fifteenth century. Other Sikh scholars disagree, stating there
are differences between the views and practices of Kabir and Nanak. Harpreet Singh, quoting
Hew McLeod, states, “In its earliest stage Sikhism was a movement within the
Hindu tradition; Nanak has raised a Hindu and eventually belonged to the Sant tradition
of northern India, a movement associated with the great poet and mystic Kabir.” Surjit Singh Gandhi disagrees and writes
“Guru Nanak in his thought pattern as well as in action model was fundamentally different
from Kabir and for that matter other radical Bhaktas or saints (saint has been erroneously
used for such Bhaktas by Mcleod).
Hence to consider Kabir as an influence on
Guru Nanak is wrong, both historically and theologically”.McLeod places Nanak in the
Sant tradition that included Kabir, and states that their fundamental doctrines were reproduced
by Nanak. JS Grewal contests this view and states that
McLeod’s approach is limiting in its scope because, “McLeod takes into account only concepts,
ignores practices altogether, he concentrates on similarities and ignores all differences”. == Vaishnavism versus other Hindu traditions
== The Vaishnavism sampradayas subscribe to various
philosophies, are similar in some aspects, and differ in others. When compared with Shaivism, Shaktism and
Smartism, a similar range of similarities and differences emerge. == Demography ==
There is no data available on demographic history or trends for Vaishnavism or other
traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents
in Vaishnavism compared to other traditions of Hinduism. Klaus Klostermaier and other scholars estimate
Vaishnavism is the largest. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and
Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus. In contrast, Jones and Ryan estimate Vaishnavism
to have perhaps 200 million followers, and it is the second-largest tradition of Hinduism
after Shaivism.
The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius
Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world because Hindu denominations
are fuzzy, individuals revere gods and goddesses polycentric, with many Vaishnava adherents
recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Shiva, Parvati, and others reverentially on festivals and
other occasions. Similarly, Shaiva, Shakta, and Smarta Hindus
revere Vishnu. Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Large Vaishnava communities exist throughout
India, particularly in Western Indian states, such as western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and Gujarat. Other major regions of Vaishnava’s presence,
particularly after the 15th century, are Odisha, Bengal, and northeastern India (Assam, Manipur). Dvaita school Vaishnava has flourished in
Karnataka where Madhavacharya established temples and monasteries, and in neighboring
states, particularly the Pandharpur region. Krishnaism has a limited following outside of India,
especially associated with 1960s counter-culture, including several celebrity followers,
such as George Harrison, due to its promulgation throughout the world by the founder-acharya
of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. == Academic study ==
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study and debate for many devotees, philosophers, and scholars within India for centuries.
Vaishnavism has its academic wing in University
of Madras – Department of Vaishnavism. In recent decades this study has also been
pursued in several academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu
Studies, Bhaktivedanta College, and Syanandura Vaishnava Sabha, a moderate and progressive
Vaishnava body headed by Gautham Padmanabhan in Trivandrum which intends to bring about
a single and precise book called Hari-grant to include all Vaishnava philosophies. == Mantras ==
Dwadashaakshara Mantra Hare Krishna (mantra)
Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya ==
See also == International Society for Krishna Consciousness
Heliodorus pillar – a 2nd-century BCE Vaishnava inscription
Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions – a 1st-century BCE inscription mentioning Narayana and Vasudeva
Hindu sects Brahmanas
Shaivism Shaktism
Vaikhanasas Divya Prabhandham
Nanaghat Inscription – a 1st-century BCE Vaishnava inscription
Vasu Doorjamb Inscription – a 1st-century CE inscription from Vaishnava temple == Notes.
