Counterculture | Wikipedia audio article
A counterculture (also written counter-culture)
is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of
mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos
and aspirations of a specific population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass,
countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes. Prominent examples of countercultures in Europe
and North America include Romanticism (1790–1840), Bohemianism (1850–1910), the more fragmentary
counterculture of the Beat Generation (1944–1964), followed by the globalized counterculture
of the 1960s (1964–1974), usually associated with the hippie subculture and the diversified
punk subculture of the 1970s and 1980s.
== Definition and characteristics ==
John Milton Yinger originated the term “counterculture” in his 1960 article in American Sociological
Review. Yinger suggested the use of the term contra culture
“wherever the normative system of a group contains, as a primary element, a theme of
conflict with the values of the total society, where personality variables are directly involved
in the development and maintenance of the group’s values, and wherever its norms can
be understood only by reference to the relationships of the group to a surrounding dominant culture.” Some scholars have attributed the counterculture
to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of a Counter Culture.
It became prominent in the news media amid
the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New
Zealand during the 1960s.Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute
to “counterculture”. “Mainstream” culture is of course also difficult
to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with the counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture (or
“media culture”), or middle-class culture and values. Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized
in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. Counterculture may
or may not be explicitly political.
It typically involves criticism or rejection
of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. It does not look favorably on party politics
or authoritarianism. Cultural development can also be affected by way of the counterculture. Scholars such as Joanne Martin and Caren Siehl,
deem counterculture and cultural development as “a balancing act, [that] some core values
of a counterculture should present a direct challenge to the core values of a dominant
culture”. Therefore, a prevalent culture and a counterculture
should coexist in an uneasy symbiosis, holding opposite positions on valuable issues that
are essentially important to each of them. According to this theory, a counterculture
can contribute a plethora of useful functions to the prevalent culture, such as “articulating
the foundations between appropriate and inappropriate behavior and providing a haven for the
development of innovative ideas”.Typically, a “fringe culture” expands and grows into
a counterculture by defining its values in opposition to mainstream norms.
Countercultures tend to peak, then go into
decline, leaving a lasting impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection,
growth, partial acceptance, and absorption into the mainstream. During the late 1960s, hippies became the
largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. The “cultural shadows” left by the Romantics,
Bohemians, Beats, and Hippies remain visible in contemporary Western culture. According
to Sheila Whiteley, “recent developments in sociological theory complicate and problematize
theories developed in the 1960s, with digital technology, for example, providing an impetus
for new understandings of counterculture”. Andy Bennett writes that “despite the theoretical
arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term
for categorizing social action, like subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and
cultural theory… [to] become part of a received, mediated memory”.
However, “this involved not simply the utopian
but also the dystopian and that while festivals such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock
might appear to embrace the former, the deaths of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi
Hendrix, Jim Morrison, and Janis Joplin, the nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy
the figure of Charles Manson cast a darker light on its underlying agenda, one that reminds
us that ‘pathological issues [are] still very much at large in today’s world”. == Literature ==
The counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its unique brand of notable
literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground
Press. In the United States, this includes the work
of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, and includes Mr.
Natural; Keep on Truckin’; Fritz the Cat;
Fat Freddy’s Cat; Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers; the album cover art for Cheap Thrills; and
in several countries contributions to International Times, The Village Voice, and Oz magazine. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, these
comics and magazines were available for purchase in head shops along with items like beads,
incense, cigarette papers, tie-dye clothing, Day-Glo posters, books, etc. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, some
of these shops selling hippie items also became cafés where hippies could hang out, chat,
smoke marijuana, read books, etc., e.g. Gandalf’s Garden in the King’s Road, London, which also
published a magazine of the same name. Another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was
Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham. == Media ==
Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to outright question
the norms within cultures and even create change usually towards a more modern way of
thought. More often than not, sources of these controversies
can be found in the art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be “a calculated
attack on the most basic conventions of art” in 1917.
Contentious artists like Banksy base most
of their works on mainstream media and culture to bring pieces that usually shock
viewers into thinking about their pieces in more detail and the themes behind them. A great example can be found in Dismaland,
the biggest project of “anarchism” to be organized and exhibited which showcases multiple works
such as an “iconic Disney princess’s horse-drawn pumpkin carriage, [appearing] to re-enact
the death of Princess Diana”. === Music ===
Counterculture is very much evident in music, particularly on the basis of the separation
of genres into those considered acceptable and within the status quo and those not.
Since many minorities groups are already considered
counterculture, the music they create and produce may reflect their sociopolitical realities
and their musical culture may be adopted as a social expression of their counterculture. This is reflected in dancehall with the concept
of base frequencies and base culture in Henriques’s “Sonic diaspora”, where he expounds that “base
denotes crude, debased, unrefined, vulgar, and even animal” for the Jamaican middle class
and is associated with the “bottom-end, low frequencies…basic lower frequencies and
embodied resonances distinctly inferior to the higher notes” that appear in dancehall. According to Henriques, “base culture is bottom-up
popular, street culture, generated by an urban underclass surviving almost entirely outside
the formal economy”. That the music is low frequency sonically
and regarded as reflective of a lower culture shows the influential connection between counterculture
and the music produced. It should also be noted that while music may
be considered base and counterculture, it may enjoy a lot of popularity which
can be seen by the labeling of hip hop as a counterculture genre, despite it being
one of the most commercially successful and high-charting genres.
=== Assimilation ===
Many of these artists though once taboo, have been assimilated into the culture and are
no longer a source of moral panic since they don’t cross overtly controversial topics or
challenge staples of current culture. Instead of being a topic to fear, they have
initiated subtle trends that other artists and sources of media may follow. == LGBT ==
Gay liberation (considered a precursor of various modern LGBT social movements) was
known for its links to the counterculture of the time (e.g. groups like the Radical
Faeries), and for the gay liberationists’ intent to transform or abolish fundamental
institutions of society such as gender and the nuclear family; in general, the politics
were radical, anti-racist, and anti-capitalist. To achieve such liberation, consciousness
raising and direct action were employed. At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual
acts were punishable offenses in these countries. The prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality
was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wilde’s 1895 trial
and imprisonment for “gross indecency”. But even then, there were dissenting views. Sigmund Freud publicly expressed his opinion
that homosexuality was “assuredly no advantage, but it is nothing to be ashamed of, no vice,
no degradation; it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a variation
of the sexual function, produced by a certain arrest of sexual development”.
According to Charles Kaiser’s The Gay Metropolis,
there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United
States (such as the annual drag balls held during the Harlem Renaissance). Some bars and bathhouses catered
to gay clientele and adopted warning procedures (similar to those used by Prohibition-era
speakeasies) to warn customers of police raids. But homosexuality was typically subsumed into
the bohemian culture and was not a significant movement in itself. Eventually, a genuine gay
culture began to take root, albeit very discreetly, with its styles, attitudes, and behaviors
and industries began catering to this growing demographic group. For example, publishing houses cranked out
pulp novels like The Velvet Underground that were targeted directly at gay people. By the early 1960s, openly gay political organizations
such as the Mattachine Society were formally protesting abusive treatment toward gay people,
challenging the entrenched idea that homosexuality was an aberrant condition, and calling for
the decriminalization of homosexuality. Despite very limited sympathy, American society
began at least to acknowledge the existence of a sizable population of gays. The film The Boys in the Band, for example,
featured negative portrayals of gay men, but at least recognized that they did
fraternize with each other (as opposed to being isolated, solitary predators who “victimized”
straight men). Disco music in large part rose out of the New York gay club scene of the
early 1970s as a reaction to the stigmatization of gays and other outside groups such as blacks
by the counterculture of that era.
By later in the decade Disco was dominating
the pop charts. The popular Village People and the critically
acclaimed Sylvester had gay-themed lyrics and presentations.Another element of LGBT counter-culture
that began in the 1970s—and continues today—is the lesbian land, landdyke movement, or womyn’s
land movement. Radical feminists inspired by the back-to-the-land
initiative and migrated to rural areas to create communities that were often female-only
and/or lesbian communes. “Free Spaces” are defined by Sociologist Francesca
Polletta is “small-scale settings within a community or movement that are removed from
the direct control of dominant groups are voluntarily participated in, and generate
the cultural challenge that precedes or accompanies political mobilization.
Women came together in Free Spaces like music
festivals, activist groups, and collectives to share ideas with like-minded people and
to explore the idea of the lesbian land movement. The movement is closely tied to eco-feminism.The
four tenets of the Landdyke Movement our relationship with the land, liberation, and transformation,
living the politics, and bodily Freedoms. Most importantly, members of these communities
seek to live outside of a patriarchal society that emphasizes “beauty ideals that
discipline the female body, compulsive heterosexuality, competitiveness with other women, and dependence”. Instead of adhering to typical female gender
roles, the women of Landdyke communities value “self-sufficiency, bodily strength, autonomy
from men and patriarchal systems, and the development of the lesbian-centered community”. Members of the Landdyke movement enjoy bodily
freedoms that have been deemed unacceptable in the modern Western world—such as the
freedom to expose their breasts or to go without any clothing at all. An awareness of their impact on the Earth,
and connection to nature are essential members of the Landdyke Movement’s way of life. The
watershed event in the American gay rights movement was the 1969 Stonewall riots in New
York City.
Following this event, gays and lesbians began
to adopt the militant protest tactics used by anti-war and black power radicals to confront
anti-gay ideology. Another major turning point was the 1973 decision
by the American Psychiatric Association to remove homosexuality from the official list
of mental disorders. Although gay radicals used pressure to force
the decision, Kaiser notes that this had been an issue of some debate for many years in
the psychiatric community and that one of the chief obstacles to normalizing homosexuality
was that therapists were profiting from offering dubious, unproven “cures”.The AIDS epidemic
was initially an unexpected blow to the movement, especially in North America. There was speculation that the disease would
permanently drive gay life underground. Ironically, the tables were turned. Many of the early victims of the disease had
been openly gay only within the confines of insular “gay ghettos” such as New York City’s
Greenwich Village and San Francisco’s Castro; they remained closeted in their professional
lives and to their families. Many heterosexuals who thought they didn’t
know any gay people were confronted by friends and loved ones dying of “the gay plague” (which
soon began to infect heterosexual people also).
LGBT communities were increasingly seen not
only as victims of a disease but as victims of ostracism and hatred. Most importantly, the disease became a rallying
point for a previously complacent gay community. AIDS invigorated the community politically
to fight not only for a medical response to the disease but also for wider acceptance
of homosexuality in mainstream America. Ultimately, coming out became an important
step for many LGBT people. During the early 1980s what was dubbed “New Music”, New wave,
“New pop” popularized by MTV and associated with gender-bending Second British Music Invasion
stars such as Boy George and Annie Lennox became what was described by Newsweek at the
time as an alternate mainstream to the traditional masculine/heterosexual rock music in the United
States. In 2003, the United States Supreme Court officially declared all sodomy laws
unconstitutional. == History ==
Bill Osgerby argues that: the counterculture’s various strands developed
from earlier artistic and political movements.
On both sides of the Atlantic the 1950s “Beat
Generation” had fused existentialist philosophy with jazz, poetry, literature, Eastern mysticism
, and drugs – themes that were all sustained in the 1960s counterculture. === the United States === In the United States, the counterculture of
the 1960s became identified with the rejection of conventional social norms of the 1950s. Counterculture youth rejected the cultural
standards of their parents, especially concerning racial segregation and initial
widespread support for the Vietnam War, and, less directly, the Cold War—with many young
people fearing that America’s nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its
involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear holocaust. In the United States, widespread tensions
developed in the 1960s in American society that tended to flow along generational lines
regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual mores, women’s rights, traditional
modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation of the American Dream. White, middle-class youth—who made up the
bulk of the counterculture in western countries—had sufficient leisure time, thanks to widespread
economic prosperity, to turn their attention to social issues.
These social issues included support for civil
rights, women’s rights, gay rights movements, and a rejection of the Vietnam War. The counterculture also had access to media
which was eager to present their concerns to a wider public. Demonstrations for social justice created
far-reaching changes affecting many aspects of society. Hippies became the largest countercultural
group in the United States. Rejection of mainstream culture was best embodied
in the new genres of psychedelic rock music, pop art, and new explorations in spirituality. Musicians who exemplified this era in the
United Kingdom and the United States included The Beatles, John Lennon, Neil Young, Bob
Dylan, The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, Frank Zappa, The
Rolling Stones, Velvet Underground, Janis Joplin, The Who, Joni Mitchell, The Kinks,
Sly and the Family Stone and, in their early years, Chicago. New forms of musical presentation also played
a key role in spreading the counterculture, with large outdoor rock festivals being the
most noteworthy. The climactic live statement on this occurred
from August 15–18, 1969, with the Woodstock Music Festival held in Bethel, New York—with
32 of rock’s and psychedelic rock’s most popular acts perform live outdoors during the sometimes
rainy weekend to an audience of half a million people.
(Michael Lang stated that 400,000 attended, half
of which did not have a ticket.) It is widely regarded as a pivotal moment
in popular music history—with Rolling Stone calling it one of the 50 Moments That Changed
the History of Rock and Roll. According to Bill Mankin, “It seems fitting…
that one of the most enduring labels for the entire generation of that era was derived
from a rock festival: the ‘Woodstock Generation.”Sentiments were expressed in song lyrics and popular
sayings of the period, such as “do your own thing”, “turn on, tune in, drop out”, “whatever
turns you on”, “Eight miles high”, “sex, drugs, and rock ‘n’ roll”, and “light my fire”. Spiritually, the counterculture included interest
in astrology, the term “Age of Aquarius” and knowing people’s astrological signs of the
Zodiac. This led Theodore Roszak to state “A [sic]
eclectic taste for the mystic, occult, and magical phenomena has been a marked characteristic
of our postwar youth culture since the days of the beatniks.” In the United States, even actor Charlton
Heston contributed to the movement, with the statement “Don’t trust anyone over thirty”
(a saying coined in 1965 by activist Jack Weinberg) in the 1968 film Planet of the Apes;
the same year, actress and social activist Jane Fonda starred in the sexually-themed
Barbarella.
Both actors opposed the Vietnam War during
its duration and Fonda would eventually become controversially active in the peace movement. The counterculture in the United States has
been interpreted as lasting roughly from 1964 to 1972—coincident with America’s involvement
in Vietnam—and reached its peak in August 1969 at the Woodstock Festival, New York,
characterized in part by the film Easy Rider (1969). Unconventional or psychedelic dress; political
activism; public protests; campus uprisings; pacifist then loud, defiant music; drugs;
communitarian experiments and sexual liberation were hallmarks of the sixties counterculture—most
of whose members were young, white, and middle-class. In the United States, the movement divided the
population. To some Americans, these attributes reflected
American ideals of free speech, equality, world peace, and the pursuit of happiness;
to others, they reflected a self-indulgent, pointlessly rebellious, unpatriotic, and destructive
assault on the country’s traditional moral order. Authorities banned the psychedelic drug LSD,
restricted political gatherings, and tried to enforce bans on what they considered obscenity
in books, music, theater, and other media. The counterculture has been argued to have
diminished in the early 1970s, and some have attributed two reasons for this. First, it has been suggested that the most
popular of its political goals—civil rights, civil liberties, gender equality, environmentalism,
and the end of the Vietnam War—were “accomplished” (to at least some degree); and also that its
most popular social attributes—particularly a “live and let live” mentality in personal
lifestyles (the “sexual revolution”)—were co-opted by mainstream society.
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Second, a decline of idealism and hedonism
occurred as many notable counterculture figures died, the rest settled into mainstream society
and started their own families, and the “magic economy” of the 1960s gave way to the stagflation
of the 1970s—the latter costing many in the middle-classes the luxury of being able
to live outside conventional social institutions. The counterculture, however, continues to
influence social movements, art, music, and society in general, and the post-1973 mainstream
society has been in many ways a hybrid of the 1960s establishment and counterculture. The
counterculture movement has been said to be rejuvenated in a way that maintains some similarities
with the Counterculture of the 1960s, but it is different as well. Photographer Steve Schapiro investigated and
documented these contemporary hippie communities from 2012 to 2014. He traveled the country with his son, attending
festival after festival. These findings were compiled in Schapiro’s
book Bliss: Transformational Festivals & the Neo Hippie. One of his most valued findings was that these
“Neo Hippies” experience and encourage such a spiritual commitment to the community.
=== Australia ===
Australia’s countercultural trend followed the one burgeoning in the US and to a lesser
extent the one in Great Britain. Political scandals in the country, such as
the disappearance of Harold Holt, and the 1975 constitutional crisis, as well as Australia’s
involvement in the Vietnam War, led to disillusionment or disengagement with political figures and
the government. Large protests were held in the country’s
most populated cities such as Sydney and Melbourne, one prominent march was held in Sydney in
1971 on George Street. The photographer Roger Scott, who captured
the protest in front of the Queen Victoria Building, remarked: “I knew I could make a
point with my camera. It was exciting. The old conservative world was ending and
a new Australia was beginning. The demonstration was almost silent. The atmosphere was electric.
The protesters were committed to making their
presence felt … It was clear they wanted to show the government that they were mighty
unhappy”.Political upheaval made its way into art in the country: film, music, and literature
were shaped by the ongoing changes within the country, the Southern Hemisphere and the
rest of the world. Bands such as The Master’s Apprentices,
The Pink Finks and Normie Rowe & The Playboys, along with Sydney’s The Easybeats, Billy
Thorpe & The Aztecs and The Missing Links began to emerge in the 1960s. One of Australia’s most noted literary voices
of the counter-culture movement was Frank Moorhouse, whose collection of short stories,
Futility and Other Animals, was first published in Sydney in 1969.
Its “discontinuous narrative” was said to
reflect the “ambiance of the counter-culture”. Helen Garner’s Monkey Grip (1977), released
eight years later, is considered a classic example of the contemporary Australian novel
and captured the thriving countercultural movement in Melbourne’s inner-city in the
mid-1970s, specifically open relationships and recreational drug use. Years later, Garner revealed it was strongly
autobiographical and based on her diaries. Additionally, from the 1960s, surf culture
took the rise in Australia given the abundance of beaches in the country, and this was reflected
in art, from bands such as The Atlantics and novels like Puberty Blues as well as the film
of the same name. === Great Britain ===
Starting in the late 1960s the counterculture movement spread in the US like wildfire. Britain did not experience the intense social
turmoil produced in America by the Vietnam War and racial tensions. Nevertheless, British youth readily identified
with their American counterparts’ desire to cast off the older generation’s social mores. The new music was a powerful weapon. In this case, it took the form of a wholesale
revolt against the class system, which was now being questioned for the first time in
the nation’s history.
Rock music, which had first been introduced
from the US in the 1950s, became a key instrument in the social uprisings of the young generation
and Britain soon became a groundswell of musical talent thanks to groups like the Beatles,
Rolling Stones, the Who, Pink Floyd, and more in coming years.The antiwar movement in Britain
closely collaborated with their American counterparts, supporting peasant insurgents in the Asian
jungles.
The “Ban the Bomb” protests centered around
opposition to nuclear weaponry; the campaign gave birth to what was to become the peace
symbol of the 1960s. === Russia/Soviet Union ===
Although not exactly equivalent to the English definition, the term Контркультура
(Kontrkul’tura) became common in Russia to define a 1990s cultural movement that promoted
acting outside of cultural conventions: the use of explicit language; graphical descriptions
of sex, violence, and illicit activities; and uncopyrighted use of “safe” characters involved
in such activities. During the early 1970s, the Soviet government
rigidly promoted optimism in Russian culture. Divorce and alcohol abuse was viewed as taboo
by the media. However, Russian society grew weary of the
gap between real life and the creative world, and underground culture became the “forbidden
fruit”. General satisfaction with the quality of existing
works led to parody, such as how the Russian anecdotal joke tradition turned the setting
of War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy into a grotesque world of sexual excess. Another well-known example is black humor
(mostly in the form of short poems) that dealt exclusively with funny deaths and/or other
mishaps of small, innocent children.
In the mid-1980s, the Glasnost policy permitted
the production of less optimistic works. As a consequence, Russian cinema during the
late 1980s and the early 1990s was action movies with explicit (but not necessarily
graphic) scenes of ruthless violence and social dramas about drug abuse, prostitution, and
failing relationships. Although Russian movies of the time would
be rated “R” in the United States due to violence, the use of explicit language was much milder
than in American cinema. In the late 1990s, Russian counterculture
became increasingly popular on the Internet. Several websites appeared that posted user-created
short stories dealing with sex, drugs, and violence. The following features are considered the
most popular topics in such works: Wide use of explicit language;
Deliberate misspelling; Descriptions of drug use and consequences
of abuse; Negative portrayals of alcohol use;
Sex and violence: nothing is a taboo – in general, violence is rarely advocated, while
all types of sex are considered good; Parody: media advertising, classic movies,
pop culture and children’s books are considered fair game;
Non-conformance; and Politically incorrect topics, mostly racism,
xenophobia and homophobia. A notable aspect of the counterculture at the time was the influence
of contra-cultural developments in Russian pop culture.
In addition to traditional Russian styles
of music, such as songs with jail-related lyrics, new music styles with explicit language
were developed. === Asia ===
In the recent past, Dr. Sebastian Kappen, an Indian theologian, has tried to redefine
counterculture in the Asian context. In March 1990, at a seminar in Bangalore,
he presented his countercultural perspectives (Chapter 4 in S. Kappen, Tradition, modernity,
counterculture: an Asian perspective, Vihar, Bangalore, 1994). Dr. Kappen envisages counterculture as a new
culture that has to negate the two opposing cultural phenomena in Asian countries: invasion by Western capitalist culture, and
the emergence of revivalist movements. Kappen writes, “Were we to succumb to the first,
we should be losing our identity; if to the second, ours would be a false, obsolete identity
in a mental universe of dead symbols and delayed myths”. The most important countercultural movement
in India had taken place in the state of West Bengal during the 1960s by a group of poets
and artists who called themselves Hungryalists. == See also == == Bibliography ==
Bennett, Andy (2012).
Reappraising “counterculture”. Volume!, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie
Seton. Curl, John (2007), Memories of Drop City,
The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and the Summer of Love, a memoir, iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-42343-4. https://web.archive.org/web/20090413150607/http://red-coral.net/DropCityIndex.html
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard
edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. 7, pp. 123–245). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1905)
Gelder, Ken (2007), Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice, London: Routledge. Goffman, Ken (2004), Counterculture through
the ages Villard Books ISBN 0-375-50758-2 Heath, Joseph and Andrew Potter (2004) Nation
of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture Collins Books ISBN 0-06-074586-X
Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo (2009), Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture.
University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700616336
Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (1991), Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-war
Britain, London: Routledge. Hazlehurst, Cameron and Kayleen M. Hazlehurst
(1998), Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations, New Brunswick & London: Transaction
Publishers. Hebdige, Dick (1979), Subculture: the Meaning
of Style, London & New York: Routledge. Paul Hodkinson and Wolfgang Deicke (2007),
Youth Cultures Scenes, Subcultures and Tribes, New York: Routledge. Macfarlane, Scott (2007), The Hippie Narrative:
A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co Inc, ISBN 0-7864-2915-1
& ISBN 978-0-7864-2915-8. McKay, George (1996), Senseless Acts of Beauty:
Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties. London Verso. ISBN 1-85984-028-0. Nelson, Elizabeth (1989), The British Counterculture
1966-73: A Study of the Underground Press. London: Macmillan. Roszak, Theodore (1968) The Making of a Counter
Culture. Isadora Test (2009), Mother India. Searching For a Place. Berlin: Peperoni Books, ISBN 978-3-941825-00-0
Whiteley, Sheila (2012). Countercultures: Music, Theories & Scenes. Volume!, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie
Seton. Whiteley, Sheila (2012). Countercultures: Utopias, Dystopias, Anarchy. Volume!, n°9-1&2, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie
Seton. Whiteley, Sheila, and Sklower, Jedediah (2014),
Countercultures and Popular Music, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4724-2106-7. Беляев, И. А. Культура, субкультура,
контркультура / И. А. Беляев, Н. А. Беляева // Духовность и
государственность. Сборник научных статей. Выпуск 3; под ред. И. А. Беляева. — Оренбург: Филиал УрАГС
в г. Оренбурге, 2002. — С. 5-18. Yinger, John Milton (1982).
Countercultures: The Promise and Peril of
a World Turned Upside Down. New York: Free Press.
